The Star-Spangled Banner
Written on the back of a letter aboard a British warship at dawn on September 14, 1814, officially the national anthem of the United States since March 4, 1931.
The Four Verses
Only the first verse is sung at public events. The other three are almost never performed, yet they reveal far more about what Francis Scott Key was thinking, feeling, and believing on that September morning.
The Flag That Inspired the Poem
The flag Francis Scott Key saw flying over Fort McHenry was not the familiar modern American flag. It was a garrison flag made specifically to be visible from a great distance: 30 feet tall by 42 feet wide, with 15 stars and 15 stripes, one star and one stripe for each state then in the Union (the current design of 50 stars and 13 stripes had not yet been standardized).
The flag was commissioned by Fort McHenry's commander, Major George Armistead, who reportedly said he wanted "a flag so large that the British would have no difficulty seeing it from a distance." It was sewn by Mary Pickersgill, a Baltimore flag maker, with the help of her 13-year-old daughter, two nieces, and an indentured servant, working on the floor of a brewery because her house was too small. Pickersgill was paid $405.90 for the garrison flag and $168.54 for a smaller storm flag.
The flag flew over Fort McHenry throughout the September 13–14 bombardment. It was later given to Major Armistead as a personal keepsake and remained in his family for decades, with family members cutting pieces off as souvenirs. In 1912 it was donated to the Smithsonian Institution, where it remains today in the National Museum of American History, measuring approximately 30 by 34 feet after the removal of pieces over the years, and still one of the most visited objects in the Smithsonian's collection.
Phrase by Phrase, First Verse
Every phrase in the first verse was written by a man watching a real battle from a real ship. The poem is more literal, and more complicated, than most Americans realize.
History, From Battle to Anthem
The Star-Spangled Banner was written in a single night during a war most Americans have half-forgotten, and it took 117 years to become the official national anthem.
- June 18, 1812
The War of 1812 Begins
Congress declares war on Britain over impressment of American sailors, interference with American trade, and British support for Native American resistance on the frontier. The war goes badly for the United States in its opening years, American invasions of Canada fail, and the U.S. Army proves unprepared for sustained conflict against British regulars.
- August 24, 1814
Washington D.C. Burns
A British force under General Robert Ross and Rear Admiral George Cockburn marches on Washington, routs the American defenders at the Battle of Bladensburg, and burns the U.S. Capitol, the White House, and other federal buildings. President Madison flees the city. It is the only time since the Revolution that a foreign power has occupied and destroyed the American capital. The British then turn toward Baltimore.
- September 12–14, 1814
The Battle of Baltimore & Fort McHenry
Baltimore, a major port and the third-largest American city, is defended by Fort McHenry at the entrance to the harbor. On September 13, a British fleet of 19 vessels, including bomb ships capable of lobbing 200-pound explosive shells from beyond the range of Fort McHenry's cannons, begins a 25-hour bombardment of the fort. The garrison, commanded by Major George Armistead, fires back when ships come within range. The British fire an estimated 1,500 rounds; the fort is hit repeatedly but not silenced. At dawn on September 14, the British fleet withdraws, having failed to suppress the fort or silence its guns. The land assault on Baltimore is also repulsed after British General Ross is killed. Baltimore is saved.
- September 14, 1814
Francis Scott Key Writes the Poem
Francis Scott Key, a 35-year-old Washington lawyer and amateur poet, had boarded a British flagship under a flag of truce to negotiate the release of a captured American physician. The British agreed to release the prisoner but detained Key and his party aboard ship during the bombardment, fearing they would report on British positions. Key watched the entire battle from the deck of the British ship, unable to know whether the fort had fallen until dawn revealed the American flag, a massive garrison flag measuring 30 by 42 feet, still flying over Fort McHenry. Overwhelmed, he wrote the poem 'The Defence of Fort McHenry' on the back of a letter he had in his pocket, completing it at a Baltimore hotel the following morning.
- September 20, 1814
Published as a Broadside
Key's poem is printed as a broadside (a single large sheet) by the Baltimore Patriot under the title 'Defence of Fort McHenry,' with a note that it should be sung to the tune of 'To Anacreon in Heaven', a popular British drinking song with a notoriously difficult melody that had already been used for several American patriotic songs. The song spreads rapidly through newspapers across the country and is immediately popular.
- 1814–1890s
Popular but Unofficial
For most of the 19th century, 'The Star-Spangled Banner' is popular but not official. The U.S. Army and Navy both use it ceremonially from the mid-19th century onward, and it is played at major patriotic events, but the country has no official national anthem. 'My Country, 'Tis of Thee,' 'Hail, Columbia,' 'Yankee Doodle,' and 'America the Beautiful' all compete for the role of de facto national anthem depending on the occasion and the region.
- 1916
Wilson Orders It at Military Events
President Woodrow Wilson, by executive order, designates 'The Star-Spangled Banner' as the official anthem for military and naval occasions. This is the first formal presidential recognition of the song, though it still has no statutory standing.
- March 4, 1931
Act of Congress, Official National Anthem
After decades of lobbying by veterans' groups, patriotic organizations, and musicians (and despite persistent opposition from those who found the melody too difficult to sing and the lyrics too war-focused), Congress passes and President Herbert Hoover signs a law designating 'The Star-Spangled Banner' as the national anthem of the United States, 117 years after Key wrote it aboard a British ship.
- 1968
Jimi Hendrix at Woodstock
Jimi Hendrix's August 18, 1969 performance of 'The Star-Spangled Banner' at Woodstock, a distorted, feedback-laden electric guitar interpretation that evoked air raid sirens, bombs, and chaos amid the melody, becomes one of the most discussed musical performances in American history. It is variously interpreted as protest, as patriotism, as art, or as all three simultaneously. The performance is now considered one of the defining cultural artifacts of the Vietnam era.
- 2016
Kaepernick and the Kneeling Debate
San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick begins kneeling during the national anthem before NFL games in August 2016 to protest police violence against Black Americans. The gesture, chosen in consultation with former Army Green Beret Nate Boyer, who suggested kneeling as more respectful than sitting, triggers a national debate about patriotism, protest, free speech, and the meaning of the anthem itself. Kaepernick is not re-signed by any NFL team after the 2016 season; the debate over anthem protests continues to divide the country.
Francis Scott Key, the Man Who Wrote It
Francis Scott Key (August 1, 1779 – January 11, 1843) was a Georgetown, D.C. lawyer, amateur poet, and devout Episcopalian who had no particular military background or political prominence before September 1814. He was a slaveholder who enslaved six people and, as a lawyer, was known for prosecuting abolitionists while occasionally providing pro bono legal services to free Black people, a reflection of the profound contradictions that defined American life in the early republic.
Key was aboard the British flagship HMS Tonnant not as a prisoner but as a negotiator: he had obtained permission from President Madison to seek the release of Dr. William Beanes, an elderly Maryland physician the British had arrested after the burning of Washington. Key successfully negotiated Beanes's release, but the British insisted on detaining Key's party until after the bombardment of Fort McHenry was complete, for fear he would report British positions to American forces.
The poem Key wrote that dawn, originally titled "The Defence of Fort McHenry", was his only significant literary achievement. He practiced law in Washington and Maryland for the rest of his life, served as U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia under Andrew Jackson (1833–1841), and died in 1843 without knowing that his hastily written poem would become the national anthem of the United States 88 years later.
Notable Performances
Whitney Houston
Super Bowl XXV, January 27, 1991
Widely considered the greatest performance of the anthem in history. Recorded to a pre-recorded track (standard practice for outdoor stadiums), Houston's studio recording was released as a single and charted twice, after the Super Bowl and again after September 11, 2001. It remains the best-selling single recording of the national anthem.
Jimi Hendrix
Woodstock, August 18, 1969
A distorted electric guitar interpretation that used feedback and whammy bar to evoke explosions, air raid sirens, and chaos amid the melody. Widely interpreted as an anti-war protest; Hendrix described it as 'beautiful.' Arguably the most discussed instrumental performance of the anthem ever given.
José Feliciano
1968 World Series, October 7, 1968
The blind Puerto Rican guitarist performed a slow, acoustic, Latin-influenced version that shocked audiences expecting the traditional arrangement. He received death threats and his manager dropped him. The performance is now recognized as a pioneering moment of artistic freedom in anthem performances.
Marvin Gaye
NBA All-Star Game, February 13, 1983
Gaye performed a slow, soul-influenced version accompanied by a drum machine, the first use of a rhythm track at a major anthem performance. Standing ovation from the arena. CBS executives reportedly objected in advance; Gaye performed it anyway.
Roseanne Barr
San Diego Padres game, July 25, 1990
A deliberately off-key performance followed by grabbing her crotch and spitting, intended as a joke but received as an outrage. President George H.W. Bush called it 'disgusting.' It remains the most notorious anthem performance in American sports history.
Beyoncé
President Obama's second inauguration, January 21, 2013
Beyoncé lip-synced to a pre-recorded version, standard practice at outdoor inaugurations (the Marine Band plays live; soloists often pre-record). The revelation that she had lip-synced generated significant controversy despite the common practice. Her live performance at the Super Bowl XLVII two weeks later, featuring an earpiece in one ear, was widely praised.
The Alternatives, What Almost Became the National Anthem
"The Star-Spangled Banner" won the national anthem designation largely through the lobbying of veterans' organizations, but it had serious competitors that many Americans preferred, and some still do.
America the Beautiful
Words by Katharine Lee Bates (1893), inspired by her view from Pikes Peak. Many Americans prefer it: the melody is easier to sing, the lyrics are optimistic rather than martial, and it celebrates the land rather than a battle. Periodically proposed as a replacement or co-anthem.
My Country, 'Tis of Thee
Written in 1831 by Samuel Francis Smith, sung to the tune of 'God Save the Queen' (the British national anthem). Effectively served as the de facto national anthem for much of the 19th century before 'The Star-Spangled Banner' was formalized.
Hail, Columbia
The first inaugural march, written in 1798 and long considered the national anthem for formal government ceremonies. Now the official anthem of the Vice President of the United States.
This Land Is Your Land
Woody Guthrie's 1940 folk anthem, written partly as a response to 'God Bless America,' has been proposed as an alternative anthem by those who find it more inclusive and democratic in spirit. Its final verses, rarely performed, are openly socialist in tone.